Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales

Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market Outlook

The global voltage variable attenuators market is expected to reach approximately USD 1.52 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of around 7.8% during the forecast period from 2025 to 2035. The increasing demand for high-performance and adaptable electronic systems across various industries, such as telecommunications and consumer electronics, is a primary factor driving this market growth. Additionally, the rising trend of miniaturization in electronic devices is pushing manufacturers to innovate and integrate advanced voltage variable attenuators for enhanced functionalities, leading to a surge in their adoption. Furthermore, the growing emphasis on energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness in electronic designs is also boosting the demand for these components. As industries evolve, the need for precise signal control and management is becoming critical, further augmenting the market dynamics.

Growth Factor of the Market

The growth of the voltage variable attenuators market can be attributed to several key factors that collectively enhance their demand across various sectors. First and foremost, the explosion of wireless communication technologies has necessitated the use of advanced signal processing components, including voltage variable attenuators, to maintain high-quality transmissions. The aerospace and defense sectors are also increasingly utilizing these components for precision applications, further driving market demand. The automotive industry is another crucial player, as the integration of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and infotainment systems in vehicles necessitates efficient signal management solutions. Additionally, the burgeoning consumer electronics market, driven by the proliferation of smart devices and IoT-enabled gadgets, is set to further reinforce the demand for these components. Lastly, ongoing research and development in the field of semiconductor materials are paving the way for the introduction of next-generation voltage variable attenuators with improved performance and reliability, which is anticipated to enhance market prospects.

Key Highlights of the Market

• The global voltage variable attenuators market is poised for significant growth, driven by advancements in communication technologies.
• Market segmentation reveals strong demand from telecommunications, aerospace, and consumer electronics sectors.
• Analog and digital voltage variable attenuators hold substantial market shares, catering to a variety of applications.
• Asia Pacific is projected to exhibit the highest growth rate due to rapid industrialization and technological advancements.
• Emerging opportunities in smart technologies and IoT applications are likely to create new revenue streams in the market.

By Product Type

Analog Voltage Variable Attenuators:

Analog voltage variable attenuators are widely employed in various applications due to their ability to provide continuous attenuation across a broad frequency range. These devices are known for their simplicity in design and ease of integration into existing systems, making them a popular choice among engineers and designers. Their operational principle relies on the variable resistance provided by the applied voltage, which allows for smooth adjustments and precise control of signal levels. This characteristic makes analog attenuators ideal for audio processing, RF signal management, and numerous telecommunications applications. As the demand for high-fidelity audio and reliable communication services grows, the market for analog voltage variable attenuators is expected to expand significantly.

Digital Voltage Variable Attenuators:

Digital voltage variable attenuators are gaining traction due to their enhanced precision and programmability. Unlike their analog counterparts, these devices utilize digital signals to control the attenuation levels, allowing for greater accuracy and repeatability in signal management. Digital attenuators are particularly beneficial in applications that require frequent adjustments or automated control systems, such as in telecommunications networks and smart antenna systems. The ability to interface with microcontrollers and digital signal processors makes these devices versatile and efficient for modern electronic systems. As automation and smart technologies proliferate, the adoption of digital voltage variable attenuators is anticipated to rise.

MEMS Voltage Variable Attenuators:

Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) voltage variable attenuators are at the forefront of innovation due to their compact size, low power consumption, and high performance. These devices leverage MEMS technology to achieve high levels of precision in signal attenuation while maintaining minimal signal distortion. The miniaturization of electronic components has increased the demand for MEMS attenuators, particularly in mobile devices and portable electronics. Their ability to operate across a wide frequency range, combined with excellent linearity and low insertion loss, positions MEMS voltage variable attenuators as a preferred choice for high-performance applications in telecommunications and consumer electronics. As the market for small form factor devices continues to grow, MEMS technology is expected to play a pivotal role.

PIN Diode Voltage Variable Attenuators:

PIN diode voltage variable attenuators offer exceptional speed and linearity, making them suitable for applications demanding rapid response times and high fidelity. These devices utilize the unique properties of PIN diodes to achieve variable attenuation based on the applied voltage, providing a reliable solution for RF applications. The ability to operate effectively over a wide frequency range makes PIN diode attenuators ideal for telecommunications, radar systems, and medical imaging technologies. Their robust performance in high-frequency applications is a significant advantage, and as industries continue to push for advancements in signal processing technology, the demand for PIN diode voltage variable attenuators is expected to rise significantly.

GaAs Voltage Variable Attenuators:

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) voltage variable attenuators are recognized for their high efficiency and performance in RF applications. These devices benefit from the superior electronic properties of GaAs materials, which allow for lower power consumption and greater sensitivity compared to traditional silicon-based components. GaAs attenuators are particularly beneficial in applications such as satellite communications, wireless infrastructure, and military electronics, where performance is critical. The increasing adoption of GaAs technology in high-frequency applications is likely to drive the market for GaAs voltage variable attenuators. As technological advancements continue to emerge, the focus on developing more efficient and effective RF components will further enhance the prospects for GaAs-based solutions.

By Application

Telecommunications:

The telecommunications sector is one of the largest consumers of voltage variable attenuators, driven by the relentless demand for improved signal quality and reliability in communication networks. These components are essential for managing signal levels in various applications, including cellular networks, satellite communications, and broadband infrastructure. As the industry transitions towards advanced technologies such as 5G, the need for high-performance voltage variable attenuators becomes increasingly critical. These devices enable network operators to optimize signal levels, reduce interference, and enhance overall network performance. Consequently, the telecommunications application segment is projected to witness substantial growth as the global demand for connectivity continues to rise.

Aerospace & Defense:

The aerospace and defense sector employs voltage variable attenuators for mission-critical applications that require precise control over signal transmission and reception. These components are utilized in radar systems, communication systems, and electronic warfare applications, where maintaining signal integrity is paramount. The rigorous standards and reliability required in this sector drive manufacturers to develop advanced voltage variable attenuators that can withstand harsh environmental conditions while delivering exceptional performance. As defense budgets increase and the demand for advanced aerospace systems continues to grow, the market for voltage variable attenuators in this sector is poised for significant expansion.

Automotive:

The automotive industry is increasingly adopting voltage variable attenuators to enhance in-vehicle communication systems, infotainment applications, and driver-assistance technologies. As vehicles become equipped with advanced electronic systems, the need for efficient signal management becomes essential. Voltage variable attenuators facilitate seamless communication between various in-car devices, ensuring optimal audio quality and reliable data transmission. Moreover, the integration of electric and hybrid vehicles, which often utilize sophisticated electronic systems for performance monitoring and control, further fuels the demand for these components. As the automotive sector continues to evolve, the application of voltage variable attenuators is expected to grow significantly.

Consumer Electronics:

Consumer electronics encompass a broad range of devices, including smartphones, tablets, audio systems, and smart home technologies, all of which require effective signal management. Voltage variable attenuators play a crucial role in enhancing audio quality and improving wireless communication capabilities in these devices. The growing trend of smart devices and IoT applications drives the need for efficient voltage variable attenuators that can adapt to varying signal levels while maintaining performance. As the consumer electronics market expands, the adoption of these components is expected to increase, contributing to the overall market growth.

Medical:

In the medical field, voltage variable attenuators are employed in various applications, including imaging systems, diagnostic equipment, and telemedicine technologies. These components are essential for ensuring precise signal control in sensitive medical devices where inaccuracies could lead to erroneous readings or compromised performance. The rise of telehealth and remote patient monitoring solutions further heightens the demand for reliable and efficient voltage variable attenuators. As the healthcare industry continues to emphasize the importance of accurate diagnostics and efficient communication, the market for voltage variable attenuators in medical applications is expected to grow significantly.

By Distribution Channel

Direct Sales:

Direct sales channels are a significant segment in the voltage variable attenuators market, allowing manufacturers to build closer relationships with their customers. This method enables companies to provide tailored solutions, thereby improving customer satisfaction and loyalty. Direct engagement with clients facilitates better communication regarding product specifications, technical support, and after-sales service, which is crucial for complex components like voltage variable attenuators. Additionally, manufacturers can leverage direct sales to gather feedback on market needs, enabling them to adapt and innovate their product offerings effectively. As the demand for customized solutions increases, the direct sales channel is poised to grow in importance within the market.

Indirect Sales:

Indirect sales channels, including distributors and resellers, play a vital role in expanding the reach of voltage variable attenuators to diverse customer segments. This channel allows manufacturers to tap into established networks, facilitating entry into new markets and regions without the need for extensive infrastructure investments. Distributors possess local market knowledge and can offer valuable insights into customer preferences, enhancing the effectiveness of marketing strategies. Furthermore, indirect channels can help manage inventory and logistics, ensuring timely delivery of products to end-users. As the global market for voltage variable attenuators continues to expand, indirect sales channels will remain a crucial component of growth strategies for manufacturers.

By Frequency Range

DC-6 GHz:

The DC-6 GHz frequency range is critical for a variety of applications, including telecommunications, broadcasting, and consumer electronics. Voltage variable attenuators operating within this range are designed for optimal performance in managing signal levels, ensuring stable communication across a range of devices. This segment caters to a wide array of industries, from mobile communications to RF circuit design, making it a significant market contributor. As the demand for high-frequency devices continues to rise, particularly with the advent of 5G technologies, the market for DC-6 GHz voltage variable attenuators is expected to witness considerable growth.

6-15 GHz:

The 6-15 GHz frequency range is increasingly becoming important in applications such as radar systems, satellite communications, and advanced wireless networks. Voltage variable attenuators in this frequency range facilitate precise signal management, which is essential for the performance of various high-speed communication systems. The growing reliance on microwave frequencies for data transmission and communication is driving the need for efficient voltage variable attenuators capable of operating within this spectrum. As industries seek to enhance data throughput and minimize signal distortion, the 6-15 GHz segment is expected to expand significantly in the coming years.

15-40 GHz:

Voltage variable attenuators designed for the 15-40 GHz frequency range are crucial for applications that require high-frequency signal processing, including advanced telecommunications and aerospace systems. This range is particularly relevant for applications such as millimeter-wave communication systems, which are gaining momentum in both commercial and military sectors. The ability of voltage variable attenuators to maintain linearity and low insertion loss at these frequencies makes them invaluable in ensuring the reliability of complex electronic systems. As the demand for high-speed data transfer continues to escalate, the market for 15-40 GHz voltage variable attenuators is expected to witness robust growth.

Above 40 GHz:

Voltage variable attenuators that operate above 40 GHz are at the forefront of cutting-edge technologies, catering to specialized applications such as advanced radar systems and high-frequency wireless communications. These devices are designed to handle the unique challenges associated with very high frequencies, including signal integrity and minimal distortion. The increasing adoption of technologies such as millimeter-wave radar and 5G communications plays a significant role in driving the demand for voltage variable attenuators in this frequency range. As industries push the boundaries of communication technologies, the market for voltage variable attenuators above 40 GHz is projected for considerable growth.

By Region

The voltage variable attenuators market is witnessing substantial growth globally, with North America leading the charge due to its advanced telecommunications infrastructure and a strong presence of key market players. The region is expected to account for approximately 35% of the total market share by 2035, fueled by continuous investments in technology and research and development activities in the electronics sector. The rapid adoption of 5G technology is particularly significant, as it requires high-performance components like voltage variable attenuators to manage signal quality and integrity effectively. Moreover, the increasing focus on smart technologies and IoT applications in North America is likely to further enhance market prospects in this region.

Europe is also emerging as a significant market for voltage variable attenuators, projected to hold around 28% of the global market share by 2035. The region benefits from a robust automotive sector and a growing aerospace industry, both of which are increasingly adopting advanced electronic components for improved performance and functionality. Additionally, the European Union's initiatives to promote technological advancements in communications and defense are likely to provide further opportunities for growth. Meanwhile, the Asia Pacific region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR of around 9% during the forecast period, driven by rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and an increasing focus on consumer electronics. The growing demand for wireless communication infrastructure in countries like China and India is expected to create new avenues for voltage variable attenuator manufacturers.

Opportunities

The voltage variable attenuators market presents numerous opportunities for growth, particularly in the burgeoning field of smart technologies. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected through the Internet of Things (IoT), the need for efficient signal management solutions is paramount. Voltage variable attenuators can play a critical role in enhancing the performance of IoT devices by allowing for precise control of signal levels and minimizing interference. This opens up a vast market for manufacturers to develop innovative products tailored for IoT applications. Furthermore, with the increasing integration of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) in vehicles, there is a significant opportunity for voltage variable attenuator providers to collaborate with automotive manufacturers to create solutions that improve communication and overall vehicle performance, thereby driving market growth.

Another notable opportunity lies within the defense and aerospace sectors, which are constantly seeking advanced technologies to enhance their operational capabilities. The shift towards more autonomous systems and modernized communication networks in defense applications creates a demand for high-performance voltage variable attenuators that can withstand rigorous conditions while providing reliable signal management. As governments worldwide increase their defense budgets and invest in advanced technologies, manufacturers in this market can explore partnerships and collaborations to provide tailored solutions that meet the specific requirements of these sectors. The continued evolution of technology and applications in various industries indicates promising prospects for voltage variable attenuator manufacturers.

Threats

Despite the promising growth prospects, the voltage variable attenuators market faces several potential threats that could impact its progress. One of the primary challenges is the rapid pace of technological advancements, which can lead to obsolescence for existing products. As new technologies emerge, voltage variable attenuators must continually adapt to meet evolving specifications and requirements. This necessitates significant investment in research and development, which may not always guarantee a return on investment for manufacturers. Additionally, competition from substitute products that offer similar functionalities at lower costs may also pose a threat to market growth. Manufacturers must innovate and differentiate their products to maintain a competitive edge in the market.

Moreover, supply chain disruptions, as seen in recent global events, can significantly impact the availability of raw materials and components required for manufacturing voltage variable attenuators. This could lead to increased production costs and delays in product delivery, adversely affecting customer satisfaction and market reputation. Furthermore, geopolitical tensions and trade restrictions may further complicate supply chain dynamics, making it challenging for manufacturers to maintain operational efficiency. As such, addressing these threats effectively is crucial for sustaining growth in the voltage variable attenuators market.

Competitor Outlook

• Analog Devices, Inc.
• Broadcom Inc.
• NXP Semiconductors N.V.
• Texas Instruments Incorporated
• Infineon Technologies AG
• Skyworks Solutions, Inc.
• Qorvo, Inc.
• Teledyne Microwave Solutions
• Mini-Circuits
• Macom Technology Solutions Holdings, Inc.
• Hittite Microwave Corporation
• Extron Electronics
• RF Micro Devices, Inc.
• AVX Corporation
• Motorola Solutions, Inc.

The competitive landscape of the voltage variable attenuators market is characterized by a mix of established players and emerging companies, all striving to gain market share through innovation and strategic partnerships. Key industry players are focused on expanding their product portfolios and improving their technological capabilities to meet the growing demands of various applications. This competitive environment encourages continuous advancements in product features, performance, and reliability. Companies are investing heavily in research and development to create next-generation voltage variable attenuators that cater to the evolving needs of sectors such as telecommunications, aerospace, and automotive.

Major companies in the voltage variable attenuators market, such as Analog Devices, Inc., play a crucial role in shaping the industry landscape. Analog Devices is known for its extensive range of high-performance analog devices, including voltage variable attenuators that serve various applications. Their focus on innovation and quality has positioned them as a leading player in the market. Similarly, Broadcom Inc. has made significant strides in the voltage variable attenuator space, leveraging its expertise in semiconductor solutions to develop advanced products that enhance communication technologies. Their commitment to research and development ensures that they remain competitive and continue to meet customer requirements effectively.

Another significant competitor is Texas Instruments Incorporated, which has gained recognition for its diverse range of electronic components, including voltage variable attenuators. The company places a strong emphasis on innovation and customer collaboration, enabling it to create tailored solutions that meet specific application needs. NXP Semiconductors N.V. is also a prominent player, providing a variety of voltage variable attenuators that cater to automotive and industrial applications. The company's investments in advanced technologies and commitment to sustainability are driving its growth in the voltage variable attenuator market. As competition intensifies, these companies will need to navigate challenges and leverage their strengths to maintain their market positions.

• 1 Appendix

  • 1.1 List of Tables
  • 1.2 List of Figures

• 2 Introduction

  • 2.1 Market Definition
  • 2.2 Scope of the Report
  • 2.3 Study Assumptions
  • 2.4 Base Currency & Forecast Periods

• 3 Market Dynamics

  • 3.1 Market Growth Factors
  • 3.2 Economic & Global Events
  • 3.3 Innovation Trends
  • 3.4 Supply Chain Analysis

• 4 Consumer Behavior

  • 4.1 Market Trends
  • 4.2 Pricing Analysis
  • 4.3 Buyer Insights

• 5 Key Player Profiles

  • 5.1 Qorvo, Inc.
    • 5.1.1 Business Overview
    • 5.1.2 Products & Services
    • 5.1.3 Financials
    • 5.1.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.1.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.2 Broadcom Inc.
    • 5.2.1 Business Overview
    • 5.2.2 Products & Services
    • 5.2.3 Financials
    • 5.2.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.2.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.3 Mini-Circuits
    • 5.3.1 Business Overview
    • 5.3.2 Products & Services
    • 5.3.3 Financials
    • 5.3.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.3.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.4 AVX Corporation
    • 5.4.1 Business Overview
    • 5.4.2 Products & Services
    • 5.4.3 Financials
    • 5.4.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.4.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.5 Extron Electronics
    • 5.5.1 Business Overview
    • 5.5.2 Products & Services
    • 5.5.3 Financials
    • 5.5.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.5.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.6 Analog Devices, Inc.
    • 5.6.1 Business Overview
    • 5.6.2 Products & Services
    • 5.6.3 Financials
    • 5.6.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.6.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.7 RF Micro Devices, Inc.
    • 5.7.1 Business Overview
    • 5.7.2 Products & Services
    • 5.7.3 Financials
    • 5.7.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.7.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.8 NXP Semiconductors N.V.
    • 5.8.1 Business Overview
    • 5.8.2 Products & Services
    • 5.8.3 Financials
    • 5.8.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.8.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.9 Infineon Technologies AG
    • 5.9.1 Business Overview
    • 5.9.2 Products & Services
    • 5.9.3 Financials
    • 5.9.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.9.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.10 Motorola Solutions, Inc.
    • 5.10.1 Business Overview
    • 5.10.2 Products & Services
    • 5.10.3 Financials
    • 5.10.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.10.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.11 Skyworks Solutions, Inc.
    • 5.11.1 Business Overview
    • 5.11.2 Products & Services
    • 5.11.3 Financials
    • 5.11.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.11.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.12 Teledyne Microwave Solutions
    • 5.12.1 Business Overview
    • 5.12.2 Products & Services
    • 5.12.3 Financials
    • 5.12.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.12.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.13 Hittite Microwave Corporation
    • 5.13.1 Business Overview
    • 5.13.2 Products & Services
    • 5.13.3 Financials
    • 5.13.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.13.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.14 Texas Instruments Incorporated
    • 5.14.1 Business Overview
    • 5.14.2 Products & Services
    • 5.14.3 Financials
    • 5.14.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.14.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.15 Macom Technology Solutions Holdings, Inc.
    • 5.15.1 Business Overview
    • 5.15.2 Products & Services
    • 5.15.3 Financials
    • 5.15.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.15.5 SWOT Analysis

• 6 Market Segmentation

  • 6.1 Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market, By Application
    • 6.1.1 Telecommunications
    • 6.1.2 Aerospace & Defense
    • 6.1.3 Automotive
    • 6.1.4 Consumer Electronics
    • 6.1.5 Medical
    • 6.1.6 Others
  • 6.2 Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market, By Product Type
    • 6.2.1 Analog Voltage Variable Attenuators
    • 6.2.2 Digital Voltage Variable Attenuators
    • 6.2.3 MEMS Voltage Variable Attenuators
    • 6.2.4 PIN Diode Voltage Variable Attenuators
    • 6.2.5 GaAs Voltage Variable Attenuators
  • 6.3 Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market, By Frequency Range
    • 6.3.1 DC-6 GHz
    • 6.3.2 6-15 GHz
    • 6.3.3 15-40 GHz
    • 6.3.4 Above 40 GHz
  • 6.4 Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market, By Distribution Channel
    • 6.4.1 Direct Sales
    • 6.4.2 Indirect Sales

• 7 Competitive Analysis

  • 7.1 Key Player Comparison
  • 7.2 Market Share Analysis
  • 7.3 Investment Trends
  • 7.4 SWOT Analysis

• 8 Research Methodology

  • 8.1 Analysis Design
  • 8.2 Research Phases
  • 8.3 Study Timeline

• 9 Future Market Outlook

  • 9.1 Growth Forecast
  • 9.2 Market Evolution

• 10 Geographical Overview

  • 10.1 Europe - Market Analysis
    • 10.1.1 By Country
      • 10.1.1.1 UK
      • 10.1.1.2 France
      • 10.1.1.3 Germany
      • 10.1.1.4 Spain
      • 10.1.1.5 Italy
  • 10.2 Asia Pacific - Market Analysis
    • 10.2.1 By Country
      • 10.2.1.1 India
      • 10.2.1.2 China
      • 10.2.1.3 Japan
      • 10.2.1.4 South Korea
  • 10.3 Latin America - Market Analysis
    • 10.3.1 By Country
      • 10.3.1.1 Brazil
      • 10.3.1.2 Argentina
      • 10.3.1.3 Mexico
  • 10.4 North America - Market Analysis
    • 10.4.1 By Country
      • 10.4.1.1 USA
      • 10.4.1.2 Canada
  • 10.5 Middle East & Africa - Market Analysis
    • 10.5.1 By Country
      • 10.5.1.1 Middle East
      • 10.5.1.2 Africa
  • 10.6 Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales Market by Region

• 11 Global Economic Factors

  • 11.1 Inflation Impact
  • 11.2 Trade Policies

• 12 Technology & Innovation

  • 12.1 Emerging Technologies
  • 12.2 AI & Digital Trends
  • 12.3 Patent Research

• 13 Investment & Market Growth

  • 13.1 Funding Trends
  • 13.2 Future Market Projections

• 14 Market Overview & Key Insights

  • 14.1 Executive Summary
  • 14.2 Key Trends
  • 14.3 Market Challenges
  • 14.4 Regulatory Landscape

Segments Analyzed in the Report

The global Voltage Variable Attenuators Sales market is categorized based on

By Product Type

• Analog Voltage Variable Attenuators
• Digital Voltage Variable Attenuators
• MEMS Voltage Variable Attenuators
• PIN Diode Voltage Variable Attenuators
• GaAs Voltage Variable Attenuators

By Application

• Telecommunications
• Aerospace & Defense
• Automotive
• Consumer Electronics
• Medical
• Others

By Distribution Channel

• Direct Sales
• Indirect Sales

By Frequency Range

• DC-6 GHz
• 6-15 GHz
• 15-40 GHz
• Above 40 GHz

By Region

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key Players

• Analog Devices, Inc.
• Broadcom Inc.
• NXP Semiconductors N.V.
• Texas Instruments Incorporated
• Infineon Technologies AG
• Skyworks Solutions, Inc.
• Qorvo, Inc.
• Teledyne Microwave Solutions
• Mini-Circuits
• Macom Technology Solutions Holdings, Inc.
• Hittite Microwave Corporation
• Extron Electronics
• RF Micro Devices, Inc.
• AVX Corporation
• Motorola Solutions, Inc.