High Purity Stannic Oxide

High Purity Stannic Oxide Market Outlook

The global High Purity Stannic Oxide market is projected to reach USD 1.2 billion by 2035, growing at a substantial CAGR of 7.5% from 2025 to 2035. This growth can be attributed to the increasing demand for high-purity materials across various industries, particularly in electronics, ceramics, and glass manufacturing. The ongoing advancements in technology and innovation in product formulations are enhancing the properties of stannic oxide, making it a preferred choice for manufacturers. Moreover, the strong emphasis on research and development, along with the rising investments from key players in the market, is expected to significantly boost the growth of this market in the coming years. Furthermore, the expanding applications of High Purity Stannic Oxide in the fields of optoelectronics and catalysts are anticipated to further propel market expansion.

Growth Factor of the Market

The growth of the High Purity Stannic Oxide market can be attributed to several key factors. One of the primary drivers is the increasing demand for high-quality raw materials in industries such as electronics and advanced ceramics, where the purity level is critical for product performance and reliability. Furthermore, the booming optoelectronics industry, fueled by the rise in consumer electronics, is significantly contributing to the demand for high-purity stannic oxide due to its excellent optical and electrical properties. Additionally, the push for sustainable manufacturing processes is leading to heightened interest in advanced materials, including high purity stannic oxide, that offer enhanced efficiency and reduced environmental impact. Another factor is the growth of the semiconductor industry, where high purity materials are essential for producing advanced components. Lastly, growing research and development activities in nanotechnology are opening new avenues for high purity stannic oxide, further enhancing its market potential.

Key Highlights of the Market

• The market is projected to reach USD 1.2 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of 7.5% from 2025 to 2035.
• Significant demand is expected from the electronics and optoelectronics sectors.
• Advancements in nanotechnology are creating new applications for high purity stannic oxide.
• Major manufacturers are focusing on R&D to enhance product quality and expand application areas.
• The Asia Pacific region is anticipated to witness the highest growth rate during the forecast period.

By Product Type

Powder :

The powder form of high purity stannic oxide is extensively utilized due to its versatility and ease of handling. Its fine particle size and high surface area make it ideal for applications in ceramics and electronics, where uniform dispersion is essential for optimal performance. Additionally, the powder is a preferred choice in the manufacturing of coatings and catalysts, as it can be easily incorporated into various formulations. The demand for high purity powder is anticipated to grow significantly, driven by the increasing production of electronic components and the need for high-performance materials in advanced ceramics. Furthermore, technological advancements in powder processing methods are enhancing the quality and consistency of stannic oxide powders, further driving market growth.

Pellets :

High purity stannic oxide pellets are gaining traction in the market due to their ease of use and efficient handling properties. These pellets provide a controlled release of material during chemical reactions, making them particularly useful in catalytic applications. The ability to maintain a consistent purity level and shape during processing is a significant advantage of the pellet form. With the growing focus on sustainable practices and the need for efficient raw materials in industrial processes, the demand for stannic oxide pellets is expected to rise. Additionally, the manufacturing of specialized pellets for niche applications is likely to create new opportunities in the market, catering to specific industry requirements.

Granules :

The granule form of high purity stannic oxide is increasingly being utilized in various applications, especially in industries requiring bulk handling of materials. Granules offer several advantages, including reduced dust generation during processing and easier transportation. The consistent size and purity of granules make them suitable for applications in ceramics and glass production, where uniformity is crucial. The market for granules is expected to expand as manufacturers seek efficient solutions for handling raw materials. Moreover, the increasing focus on automated processes in manufacturing is likely to drive the adoption of granules, facilitating smoother operations and enhanced productivity.

Nanoparticles :

Nanoparticles of high purity stannic oxide are at the forefront of innovation due to their unique properties and potential applications in various fields. The nanoscale size allows for improved reactivity and performance, making them suitable for advanced applications in optoelectronics and catalysis. The growing interest in nanotechnology is driving research into the synthesis and applications of stannic oxide nanoparticles, particularly in the development of high-performance materials. As industries focus on miniaturization and enhanced functionality, the demand for stannic oxide nanoparticles is anticipated to grow significantly, paving the way for new technological advancements.

Tablets :

High purity stannic oxide tablets are emerging as a useful form for specific industrial applications. These tablets provide a convenient and consistent dosage of material, which is essential in processes where accurate measurements are critical. Their stability and ease of handling make them ideal for use in laboratories and research settings, where high purity levels are paramount. The demand for tablets is expected to rise as industries continue to prioritize precision in material handling and formulations. Moreover, the development of customized tablets tailored to specific application requirements could further enhance their market appeal.

By Application

Ceramics :

The use of high purity stannic oxide in ceramics is significant due to its ability to enhance the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramic materials. As a key additive, stannic oxide improves the strength and durability of ceramics, making it a popular choice in the production of high-performance tiles, sanitary ware, and electronic ceramics. The growing construction and ceramics industries are driving the demand for high purity stannic oxide, as manufacturers seek materials that offer superior performance and aesthetics. Additionally, ongoing innovations in ceramic technology are likely to further boost the requirement for high purity stannic oxide, particularly in specialized applications.

Glass :

High purity stannic oxide plays a crucial role in the glass industry, particularly in the production of specialty glasses that require precise optical properties and thermal stability. The incorporation of high purity stannic oxide enhances the refractive index and electrical conductivity of glass products, making them suitable for applications in architecture, electronics, and automotive sectors. The increasing demand for innovative glass solutions, such as smart glass and energy-efficient windows, is expected to drive the growth of high purity stannic oxide in this sector. Furthermore, advancements in glass manufacturing techniques are likely to open up new opportunities for the application of stannic oxide.

Optoelectronics :

The optoelectronics sector is witnessing a rising demand for high purity stannic oxide due to its excellent electrical and optical properties, which are essential for the development of advanced electronic devices. Stannic oxide is utilized in the production of transparent conductive films and sensors, which are critical components in displays, photovoltaic cells, and other optoelectronic applications. The rapid growth of the consumer electronics market, driven by innovations in smartphones, tablets, and wearables, is significantly boosting the demand for high purity stannic oxide. As technology continues to evolve, the need for higher quality materials in optoelectronics will likely escalate, creating further opportunities for market growth.

Catalysts :

High purity stannic oxide is increasingly being recognized for its catalytic properties and is finding application in various chemical processes. Its utilization in catalysts is particularly significant in reactions that require high purity and specific reactivity profiles. The demand for effective catalysts in the chemical and petrochemical industries is propelling the growth of high purity stannic oxide as manufacturers seek to optimize their production processes. Additionally, the emphasis on sustainability and eco-friendly processes is driving innovations in catalyst development, further enhancing the role of stannic oxide in these applications. The continuous evolution of catalytic technologies is expected to provide substantial growth prospects for high purity stannic oxide.

Others :

Beyond its primary applications, high purity stannic oxide is also finding uses in various niche applications across different industries. These include its role as an additive in paints and coatings, where it enhances durability and performance characteristics. Additionally, it is utilized in the development of advanced materials for energy storage systems, such as batteries and supercapacitors, due to its superior electrical conductivity. The versatility of high purity stannic oxide is opening doors to new applications, driven by the ongoing demand for innovative materials that can meet specific performance criteria. As industries evolve and diversify, the potential for utilizing stannic oxide in new and emerging applications is substantial.

By Distribution Channel

Direct Sales :

Direct sales play a significant role in the distribution of high purity stannic oxide, allowing manufacturers and suppliers to connect directly with end-users. This channel enables better communication and understanding of customer requirements, facilitating tailored solutions that meet specific industry needs. Direct sales also allow for more competitive pricing by eliminating intermediaries, making high purity stannic oxide more accessible to a broader range of customers. Furthermore, the establishment of long-term relationships between producers and end-users can lead to improved product consistency and reliability. As industries increasingly value direct engagement with suppliers, the direct sales channel is expected to maintain its prominence in the market.

Indirect Sales :

Indirect sales channels are equally important in the high purity stannic oxide market, providing a structured method for reaching a wider audience. Through distributors and third-party retailers, manufacturers can expand their reach to various geographical locations and industries that they may not directly service. This approach allows for streamlined logistics and distribution, making it easier for customers to acquire high purity stannic oxide without needing extensive purchasing knowledge. Additionally, indirect sales channels often bring expertise in local market demands and trends, enabling suppliers to better align their offerings with customer needs. The continued growth of e-commerce and online marketplaces is likely to further enhance the role of indirect sales in the distribution of high purity stannic oxide.

By Ingredient Type

99.9% Purity :

High purity stannic oxide with a purity level of 99.9% is widely used across various applications due to its satisfactory performance characteristics. This purity level is often adequate for many industrial applications, including ceramics and glass production, where the need for absolute purity may not be as critical. The demand for 99.9% purity stannic oxide is expected to remain steady, especially among manufacturers looking for cost-effective solutions without compromising on quality. Furthermore, as industries continue to evolve, there may be an increasing focus on optimizing processes that utilize materials with this purity level, ensuring consistent performance and reliability.

99.99% Purity :

High purity stannic oxide boasting a purity level of 99.99% is increasingly sought after for applications requiring high precision and reliability, particularly in the electronics and optoelectronics sectors. This level of purity is essential for manufacturing high-end electronic components, where even minor impurities can significantly impact performance. As the demand for sophisticated electronics continues to grow, driven by advancements in technology, the requirement for stannic oxide with 99.99% purity is anticipated to rise. Additionally, the increasing emphasis on quality assurance and stringent regulations in manufacturing processes further underscores the importance of using materials with high purity levels.

99.999% Purity :

For applications where maximum performance is crucial, high purity stannic oxide with a purity level of 99.999% is becoming increasingly popular. This extraordinary level of purity is indispensable in specialized applications, particularly in the semiconductor and aerospace industries, where the impact of contaminants must be minimized to ensure product reliability and safety. The demand for 99.999% purity stannic oxide is expected to grow as industries continue to push the boundaries of technology and performance. Manufacturers are likely to respond to this demand by investing in advanced purification methods and quality control processes, ensuring that they meet the rigorous requirements of high-end applications.

99.9999% Purity :

Representing the pinnacle of purity, high purity stannic oxide with a purity level of 99.9999% is essential for ultra-sensitive applications, particularly in the field of advanced research and development. This level of purity is critical in laboratories and high-tech industries, where the integrity of materials is paramount for achieving accurate and reliable results. The market for 99.9999% purity stannic oxide is expected to grow as the focus on precision and quality in scientific research escalates. As more industries recognize the importance of using ultra-pure materials in their processes, the demand for stannic oxide with this remarkable level of purity will likely continue to expand.

Others :

In addition to the aforementioned purity levels, there are various formulations of high purity stannic oxide that cater to specific applications and industry needs. These custom formulations may include blends with other materials or additional processing steps to achieve desired properties. The demand for such specialized products is expected to grow as industries increasingly seek tailored solutions that can address unique challenges. Niche applications, such as those found in medical devices and aerospace components, may particularly benefit from the availability of high purity stannic oxide in varied formulations. As innovation drives the development of new applications, the flexibility to customize stannic oxide products will be a key factor in capturing market opportunities.

By Region

The regional analysis of the High Purity Stannic Oxide market indicates a significant variation in demand and growth potential across different areas. North America is currently one of the leading markets, accounting for approximately 35% of the global market share. The region is characterized by a strong presence of manufacturing industries, particularly in electronics, that require high purity materials for quality assurance. The CAGR for North America is estimated to be around 6.5% during the forecast period, driven by advancements in technology and increasing investments in R&D. Furthermore, the presence of established key players in the region is likely to bolster market growth as they continue to innovate and expand their product offerings.

In contrast, the Asia Pacific region is projected to witness the highest growth rate, with an expected CAGR of 8.5% from 2025 to 2035. The rapid industrialization and growing electronics manufacturing base in countries like China, Japan, and South Korea are substantial factors driving this growth. The increasing demand for high purity stannic oxide in applications such as optoelectronics and advanced ceramics is expected to propel market expansion in this region. Additionally, favorable government policies aiming at enhancing manufacturing capabilities and investments in technology are anticipated to support the growth of the market in Asia Pacific. Overall, the diverse regional dynamics will play a crucial role in shaping the future of the High Purity Stannic Oxide market.

Opportunities

The High Purity Stannic Oxide market is poised for significant opportunities fueled by technological advancements and evolving industry needs. One of the primary opportunities lies in the expanding applications of high purity stannic oxide in emerging technologies, particularly in the fields of renewable energy and sustainable manufacturing. The ongoing push for cleaner energy solutions is driving research into advanced materials that can enhance the efficiency of solar cells, batteries, and other energy storage systems. High purity stannic oxide, with its unique electrical and optical properties, is well-positioned to play an integral role in these developments, creating avenues for manufacturers to innovate and diversify their product offerings. Furthermore, the increasing focus on green chemistry and sustainable practices across various industries is presenting opportunities for high purity stannic oxide to be incorporated into eco-friendly formulations, thus aligning with global trends towards sustainability.

Another significant opportunity lies in the growing demand for nanotechnology, where high purity stannic oxide nanoparticles can be utilized for various applications, including drug delivery, diagnostics, and advanced coatings. The advancements in nanotechnology are opening new horizons for high purity stannic oxide, allowing it to be integrated into applications that were previously not feasible. As industries explore innovative solutions to enhance product performance and functionality, the necessity for high purity materials with unique properties will continue to rise. Moreover, the increasing collaboration between academic institutions and industry players in research initiatives is likely to further accelerate the development of new applications for high purity stannic oxide, cementing its place as a critical component in advanced materials science.

Threats

The High Purity Stannic Oxide market faces several threats that could impact its growth trajectory. One of the most significant threats is the volatility in raw material prices, which can adversely affect production costs and profit margins for manufacturers. Fluctuations in the prices of inputs required for the production of high purity stannic oxide may lead to increased operational costs, making it challenging for manufacturers to maintain competitive pricing. Additionally, geopolitical tensions and trade restrictions can disrupt supply chains, further exacerbating the cost of raw materials and impacting the availability of products in the market. Market players must remain vigilant and adaptable to navigate these challenges effectively, balancing the need for cost efficiency with the quality and purity standards that are integral to their products.

Another potential threat is the increasing competition from alternative materials that may offer similar or enhanced performance characteristics at a lower cost. As industries continuously seek ways to optimize their manufacturing processes and reduce costs, the adoption of alternative materials could pose a significant challenge to the market. Moreover, the rapid pace of technological advancements may result in the emergence of substitutes that could outpace traditional high purity stannic oxide applications. To mitigate these threats, manufacturers need to invest in R&D, ensuring that they continue to innovate and improve their product offerings, thus reinforcing their competitive edge in the market. Maintaining strong relationships with customers and understanding their evolving needs will also be crucial in retaining market share amid changing dynamics.

Competitor Outlook

• Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC)
• H.C. Starck
• Umicore
• American Elements
• Showa Denko Corporation
• Strem Chemicals
• Indium Corporation
• Huntsman Corporation
• Yamato Scientific
• Alpha Aesar
• Mitsubishi Materials Corporation
• Merck Group
• Norco Chemical Company
• Advanced Nano Products
• Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc.

The competitive landscape of the High Purity Stannic Oxide market is characterized by a diverse range of players, including established multinational corporations and emerging startups. Key manufacturers are strategically focusing on research and development, aiming to enhance product quality and expand their application areas. This has led to significant advancements in the purification processes and formulations of high purity stannic oxide, enabling companies to meet the growing demand for ultra-pure materials across various industries. Additionally, the industry is witnessing a trend towards mergers and acquisitions as companies seek to bolster their competitive positions and access new markets. Collaborations and partnerships among key players are also on the rise, further driving innovation and ensuring that manufacturers remain at the forefront of technological advancements.

Companies like H.C. Starck and Umicore are recognized leaders in the production of high purity stannic oxide, leveraging their extensive experience and expertise in materials science to deliver high-quality products. These companies have established robust supply chains and distribution networks, enabling them to cater to diverse customer needs across various geographical regions. They are heavily investing in R&D to explore new applications and enhance the properties of high purity stannic oxide, ensuring their products meet the evolving demands of industries such as electronics, optoelectronics, and advanced ceramics. Their commitment to sustainable practices and environmental responsibility is also driving innovation, as they work towards developing eco-friendly materials and processes.

Another notable player in the market is the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), which has significantly contributed to the demand for high purity stannic oxide in the semiconductor industry. TSMC's focus on advanced technology and innovation is driving the need for high purity materials that can support the production of next-generation electronic components. By fostering collaborations with suppliers and investing in cutting-edge manufacturing technologies, TSMC is well-positioned to capitalize on the growing demand for high purity stannic oxide. Furthermore, companies like American Elements and Strem Chemicals are also making strides by offering a wide range of high purity materials, catering to niche applications and customer-specific requirements, thereby enhancing their market presence.

• 1 Appendix

  • 1.1 List of Tables
  • 1.2 List of Figures

• 2 Introduction

  • 2.1 Market Definition
  • 2.2 Scope of the Report
  • 2.3 Study Assumptions
  • 2.4 Base Currency & Forecast Periods

• 3 Market Dynamics

  • 3.1 Market Growth Factors
  • 3.2 Economic & Global Events
  • 3.3 Innovation Trends
  • 3.4 Supply Chain Analysis

• 4 Consumer Behavior

  • 4.1 Market Trends
  • 4.2 Pricing Analysis
  • 4.3 Buyer Insights

• 5 Key Player Profiles

  • 5.1 Umicore
    • 5.1.1 Business Overview
    • 5.1.2 Products & Services
    • 5.1.3 Financials
    • 5.1.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.1.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.2 Alpha Aesar
    • 5.2.1 Business Overview
    • 5.2.2 Products & Services
    • 5.2.3 Financials
    • 5.2.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.2.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.3 H.C. Starck
    • 5.3.1 Business Overview
    • 5.3.2 Products & Services
    • 5.3.3 Financials
    • 5.3.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.3.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.4 Merck Group
    • 5.4.1 Business Overview
    • 5.4.2 Products & Services
    • 5.4.3 Financials
    • 5.4.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.4.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.5 Strem Chemicals
    • 5.5.1 Business Overview
    • 5.5.2 Products & Services
    • 5.5.3 Financials
    • 5.5.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.5.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.6 American Elements
    • 5.6.1 Business Overview
    • 5.6.2 Products & Services
    • 5.6.3 Financials
    • 5.6.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.6.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.7 Yamato Scientific
    • 5.7.1 Business Overview
    • 5.7.2 Products & Services
    • 5.7.3 Financials
    • 5.7.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.7.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.8 Indium Corporation
    • 5.8.1 Business Overview
    • 5.8.2 Products & Services
    • 5.8.3 Financials
    • 5.8.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.8.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.9 Huntsman Corporation
    • 5.9.1 Business Overview
    • 5.9.2 Products & Services
    • 5.9.3 Financials
    • 5.9.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.9.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.10 Advanced Nano Products
    • 5.10.1 Business Overview
    • 5.10.2 Products & Services
    • 5.10.3 Financials
    • 5.10.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.10.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.11 Norco Chemical Company
    • 5.11.1 Business Overview
    • 5.11.2 Products & Services
    • 5.11.3 Financials
    • 5.11.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.11.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.12 Showa Denko Corporation
    • 5.12.1 Business Overview
    • 5.12.2 Products & Services
    • 5.12.3 Financials
    • 5.12.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.12.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.13 Mitsubishi Materials Corporation
    • 5.13.1 Business Overview
    • 5.13.2 Products & Services
    • 5.13.3 Financials
    • 5.13.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.13.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.14 Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc.
    • 5.14.1 Business Overview
    • 5.14.2 Products & Services
    • 5.14.3 Financials
    • 5.14.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.14.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.15 Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC)
    • 5.15.1 Business Overview
    • 5.15.2 Products & Services
    • 5.15.3 Financials
    • 5.15.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.15.5 SWOT Analysis

• 6 Market Segmentation

  • 6.1 High Purity Stannic Oxide Market, By Application
    • 6.1.1 Ceramics
    • 6.1.2 Glass
    • 6.1.3 Optoelectronics
    • 6.1.4 Catalysts
    • 6.1.5 Others
  • 6.2 High Purity Stannic Oxide Market, By Product Type
    • 6.2.1 Powder
    • 6.2.2 Pellets
    • 6.2.3 Granules
    • 6.2.4 Nanoparticles
    • 6.2.5 Tablets
  • 6.3 High Purity Stannic Oxide Market, By Ingredient Type
    • 6.3.1 99.9% Purity
    • 6.3.2 99.99% Purity
    • 6.3.3 99.999% Purity
    • 6.3.4 99.9999% Purity
    • 6.3.5 Others
  • 6.4 High Purity Stannic Oxide Market, By Distribution Channel
    • 6.4.1 Direct Sales
    • 6.4.2 Indirect Sales

• 7 Competitive Analysis

  • 7.1 Key Player Comparison
  • 7.2 Market Share Analysis
  • 7.3 Investment Trends
  • 7.4 SWOT Analysis

• 8 Research Methodology

  • 8.1 Analysis Design
  • 8.2 Research Phases
  • 8.3 Study Timeline

• 9 Future Market Outlook

  • 9.1 Growth Forecast
  • 9.2 Market Evolution

• 10 Geographical Overview

  • 10.1 Europe - Market Analysis
    • 10.1.1 By Country
      • 10.1.1.1 UK
      • 10.1.1.2 France
      • 10.1.1.3 Germany
      • 10.1.1.4 Spain
      • 10.1.1.5 Italy
  • 10.2 Asia Pacific - Market Analysis
    • 10.2.1 By Country
      • 10.2.1.1 India
      • 10.2.1.2 China
      • 10.2.1.3 Japan
      • 10.2.1.4 South Korea
  • 10.3 Latin America - Market Analysis
    • 10.3.1 By Country
      • 10.3.1.1 Brazil
      • 10.3.1.2 Argentina
      • 10.3.1.3 Mexico
  • 10.4 North America - Market Analysis
    • 10.4.1 By Country
      • 10.4.1.1 USA
      • 10.4.1.2 Canada
  • 10.5 Middle East & Africa - Market Analysis
    • 10.5.1 By Country
      • 10.5.1.1 Middle East
      • 10.5.1.2 Africa
  • 10.6 High Purity Stannic Oxide Market by Region

• 11 Global Economic Factors

  • 11.1 Inflation Impact
  • 11.2 Trade Policies

• 12 Technology & Innovation

  • 12.1 Emerging Technologies
  • 12.2 AI & Digital Trends
  • 12.3 Patent Research

• 13 Investment & Market Growth

  • 13.1 Funding Trends
  • 13.2 Future Market Projections

• 14 Market Overview & Key Insights

  • 14.1 Executive Summary
  • 14.2 Key Trends
  • 14.3 Market Challenges
  • 14.4 Regulatory Landscape

Segments Analyzed in the Report

The global High Purity Stannic Oxide market is categorized based on

By Product Type

• Powder
• Pellets
• Granules
• Nanoparticles
• Tablets

By Application

• Ceramics
• Glass
• Optoelectronics
• Catalysts
• Others

By Distribution Channel

• Direct Sales
• Indirect Sales

By Ingredient Type

• 99.9% Purity
• 99.99% Purity
• 99.999% Purity
• 99.9999% Purity
• Others

By Region

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key Players

• Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC)
• H.C. Starck
• Umicore
• American Elements
• Showa Denko Corporation
• Strem Chemicals
• Indium Corporation
• Huntsman Corporation
• Yamato Scientific
• Alpha Aesar
• Mitsubishi Materials Corporation
• Merck Group
• Norco Chemical Company
• Advanced Nano Products
• Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc.