Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales

Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market Outlook

The global market size for drugs targeting vulvovaginal candidiasis is projected to reach USD 2.5 billion by 2035, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 6.1% from 2025 to 2035. The growth of this market can be attributed to several key factors, including the increasing prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis, heightened awareness regarding women’s health issues, and advancements in antifungal therapies. As more women seek treatment options for vaginal infections, healthcare providers are also becoming more proactive in diagnosing and treating this condition, thus driving the demand for effective antifungal medications. Moreover, the introduction of over-the-counter options has made treatments more accessible, further boosting market growth. The evolving landscape of telemedicine and online pharmacy services also plays a significant role in enhancing access to care and medication, particularly in underserved areas.

Growth Factor of the Market

The growth of the drugs for vulvovaginal candidiasis market is primarily driven by increasing healthcare awareness and the rising incidence of yeast infections among women. With lifestyle changes, dietary factors, and the use of antibiotics, the prevalence of candidiasis has surged, compelling healthcare professionals to focus more on diagnosis and treatment options. Furthermore, continuous research and innovation in the development of antifungal agents that are both effective and safe have contributed to market expansion. The growing elderly population, who are more susceptible to infections, along with the increasing number of self-diagnosing patients, has also stimulated demand for various treatment modalities, including both prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Notably, the shift toward online pharmacies and telehealth services creates an enabling environment for easier access to treatment, thereby supporting market growth. The emphasis on women's health and education regarding intimate health issues particularly among younger demographics has resulted in an uptick in proactive treatments, further benefiting the market.

Key Highlights of the Market

• The market is expected to reach USD 2.5 billion by 2035, indicating significant growth potential.
• Prescription and over-the-counter drugs are the leading product segments driving revenue.
• North America holds the largest market share due to increased awareness and healthcare access.
• The online pharmacy sector is witnessing considerable growth, offering competitive pricing and convenience.
• The presence of multiple active ingredients allows for diverse treatment options tailored to patient needs.

By Product Type

Prescription Drugs:

Prescription drugs for vulvovaginal candidiasis represent a significant segment of the market, characterized by their potency and suitability for severe infections. These medications are usually prescribed by healthcare professionals and are formulated to deliver targeted antifungal action against Candida species. Many of these drugs are used in cases where over-the-counter treatments have proven ineffective due to the severity or recurrence of the infection. The strong efficacy of prescription antifungals like Fluconazole ensures that they remain a preferred choice among healthcare providers, which contributes to their growing market share. As awareness regarding proper diagnosis and management of vulvovaginal candidiasis increases, the reliance on prescription medications is expected to continue to grow.

Over-the-Counter Drugs:

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs offer a convenient solution for women seeking to self-manage vulvovaginal candidiasis symptoms. These products are accessible without a prescription and include various topical treatments and formulations that have gained popularity for their ease of use and effectiveness. The rise in the number of OTC options allows women to initiate treatment promptly, which is crucial for alleviating symptoms and preventing complications. As the stigma surrounding vaginal infections diminishes, an increasing number of women are opting for OTC solutions, thereby expanding this segment of the market. Manufacturers are continually innovating new formulations that combine efficacy with improved user experience, thus driving growth in the OTC drugs segment.

Antifungal Creams:

Antifungal creams are specifically formulated topical treatments that target the local manifestation of vulvovaginal candidiasis. They are commonly used as a first-line treatment option due to their targeted application and minimal side effects. These creams contain potent antifungal agents that help to relieve itching and irritation while combating the underlying yeast infection. The prevalence of these products is bolstered by their ease of application and rapid relief, making them a go-to option for many women. The ongoing emphasis on personalized healthcare solutions is leading to innovations in the formulation of antifungal creams, further enhancing their market appeal and effectiveness in treating candidiasis.

Antifungal Suppositories:

Antifungal suppositories are another effective treatment modality for vulvovaginal candidiasis, providing localized treatment to deliver antifungal agents directly to the infection site. These products are particularly beneficial for patients who may experience discomfort with topical creams or who prefer an alternative method of administration. Suppositories often contain well-established active ingredients that quickly relieve symptoms and address the infection itself. The convenience of use and effectiveness of these products have positioned them favorably in the market. As consumer preferences continue to evolve, the demand for suppositories is expected to increase, particularly among women seeking discreet treatment options.

Oral Antifungal Medications:

Oral antifungal medications are a critical segment in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis, especially for recurrent or complicated cases. This type of medication provides a systemic approach to treatment, which can be particularly advantageous in cases where topical treatments have been ineffective. Oral antifungals like Fluconazole are widely prescribed due to their efficacy and convenience, allowing for a single-dose treatment in many cases. The growing recognition of the need for effective management of recurrent infections is expected to sustain the demand for oral antifungal medications. As research continues to identify new formulations and treatment strategies, the oral medication segment remains poised for continued growth.

By Application

Hospital Pharmacies:

Hospital pharmacies play a pivotal role in the management and dispensing of antifungal medications for vulvovaginal candidiasis, particularly for patients presenting with severe or recurrent cases. These pharmacies are integral to the healthcare ecosystem, providing access to prescription medications that may not be available over-the-counter. The collaboration between healthcare professionals and hospital pharmacies ensures that patients receive appropriate treatments tailored to their specific health needs. As the complexity of treatment regimens increases, hospital pharmacies are positioned to play an even more significant role in proper medication management and patient education regarding vulvovaginal candidiasis.

Retail Pharmacies:

Retail pharmacies represent a crucial distribution channel, providing immediate access to treatments for vulvovaginal candidiasis. They offer a wide range of both prescription and over-the-counter products, catering to diverse patient needs. The accessibility of these pharmacies enables women to obtain medications quickly, crucial for timely relief from symptoms. Retail pharmacists also serve as valuable resources for information and education on the condition, helping to alleviate concerns and guide treatment choices. The growing trend of health-conscious consumers seeking accessible healthcare solutions positions retail pharmacies as key players in the vulvovaginal candidiasis market.

Online Pharmacies:

Online pharmacies have revolutionized the way consumers access medications for vulvovaginal candidiasis, providing a convenient option for women who may prefer privacy when seeking treatment. The rise of e-commerce in healthcare has enabled consumers to select from a diverse range of products while enjoying competitive pricing and discreet delivery. Online pharmacies are particularly attractive to younger demographics who are accustomed to digital solutions and prefer the convenience that these platforms offer. The ongoing expansion of telehealth services and the increasing comfort with online shopping are expected to further drive growth in this segment, establishing online pharmacies as a significant force in the market.

By Distribution Channel

Online Stores:

Online stores have become a vital distribution channel for drugs treating vulvovaginal candidiasis, enabling consumers to purchase medications from the comfort of their homes. This channel is particularly appealing to patients who prefer discretion and convenience when seeking treatment for sensitive health issues. The ability to compare products, read reviews, and access a broader range of options has increased consumer confidence in online purchasing. As technology continues to advance and e-commerce becomes more integrated into healthcare, online stores are expected to experience considerable growth in their market share.

Supermarkets/Hypermarkets:

Supermarkets and hypermarkets serve as accessible locations for consumers seeking over-the-counter antifungal treatments for vulvovaginal candidiasis. This distribution channel offers a combination of convenience and variety, allowing consumers to purchase medications alongside their regular grocery shopping. The presence of these medications in well-known retail outlets helps to normalize the conversation around women’s health and encourages self-treatment in a discreet manner. The expansive reach of supermarkets and hypermarkets ensures that a broader audience has access to necessary medications, thus supporting the overall growth of this market segment.

Specialty Stores:

Specialty stores focusing on health and wellness products contribute to the distribution of vulvovaginal candidiasis medications by catering to specific consumer needs. These stores often stock a curated selection of products, including both natural and over-the-counter remedies, appealing to consumers looking for alternative treatment options. The knowledgeable staff in specialty stores can provide valuable information and advice, helping customers make informed decisions about their health. As consumers become increasingly health-conscious and seek targeted solutions, specialty stores are likely to see a rise in demand for treatments, positioning them as important players in the market.

Drug Stores:

Drug stores are fundamental to the distribution network for vulvovaginal candidiasis medications, providing a comprehensive range of both prescription and over-the-counter products. These establishments are often located conveniently, making them easily accessible to consumers. The availability of trained pharmacists allows for personalized advice and recommendations, enhancing the overall shopping experience. Drug stores are critical in promoting awareness about women’s health issues, as they often display educational materials related to vaginal health. The continued importance of drug stores in the health ecosystem is expected to support sustained growth in this segment of the market.

By Active Ingredient

Clotrimazole:

Clotrimazole is a widely used antifungal agent that is effective against various strains of Candida, making it a prominent ingredient in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis. It is available in multiple formulations, including creams, suppositories, and tablets, offering flexibility for patient preferences. Clotrimazole works by inhibiting the growth of fungi, leading to a reduction in symptoms such as itching and irritation. Its established efficacy and safety profile have made it a staple in both over-the-counter and prescription products. As healthcare awareness increases, the demand for clotrimazole-containing products is expected to remain robust in the market.

Miconazole:

Miconazole is another active ingredient commonly used in antifungal treatments for vulvovaginal candidiasis. Similar to Clotrimazole, it is effective against a range of Candida species and is available in various forms, including topical creams and suppositories. Miconazole works by disrupting the cell membrane of fungi, leading to cell death and alleviation of symptoms. The versatility of Miconazole products allows for both self-treatment and prescription use, catering to a wide spectrum of patient needs. As more women seek effective solutions for candidiasis, products containing Miconazole are expected to sustain strong demand in the market.

Fluconazole:

Fluconazole is a systemic antifungal medication widely prescribed for treating vulvovaginal candidiasis, particularly in cases of recurrent infections. This oral medication is known for its rapid action and efficacy, often requiring just a single dose to treat acute episodes. Fluconazole works by inhibiting fungal growth through interference with their cell membrane function. Its effectiveness, combined with ease of administration, has made it a popular choice among healthcare providers and patients alike. The increasing prevalence of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis is expected to drive further demand for Fluconazole, solidifying its position in the market.

Butoconazole:

Butoconazole is a topical antifungal agent used primarily for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis. It is typically available in cream formulations and works by targeting the fungal cell membrane, causing cell death. Its formulation is designed for ease of application and rapid relief from symptoms, making it a convenient option for many women. As awareness of various treatment options grows, the demand for Butoconazole is expected to rise, particularly among those who prefer topical therapies. The availability of Butoconazole in both prescription and over-the-counter formats enhances its accessibility, contributing to its market presence.

Tioconazole:

Tioconazole is another active ingredient in antifungal treatments that has gained popularity for its effectiveness in treating vulvovaginal candidiasis. Available as a topical cream or suppository, Tioconazole works by disrupting the integrity of the fungal cell membrane, effectively reducing the infection. Its efficacy and ease of use have positioned it as a favored option for women seeking immediate relief from symptoms. With a growing emphasis on treating candidiasis promptly and effectively, Tioconazole is expected to see sustained demand in the market, particularly in the over-the-counter segment.

By Region

The North American region leads the global market for drugs targeting vulvovaginal candidiasis, accounting for approximately 40% of the total market share in 2025. This dominance can be attributed to several factors, including higher awareness of women's health issues, extensive healthcare infrastructure, and the availability of various treatment options. Additionally, the growing trend of self-medication, primarily through over-the-counter options, has significantly influenced market dynamics in North America. The CAGR for this region is projected to be around 5.5% over the forecast period, reflecting consistent demand for antifungal medications and increased focus on women's health initiatives.

In Europe, the vulvovaginal candidiasis drugs market is also experiencing notable growth, accounting for approximately 30% of the global market share in 2025. The European market is characterized by a diverse range of treatment options as well as robust healthcare systems that enable access to both prescription and over-the-counter medications. Factors such as increasing healthcare expenditure, improved patient awareness, and initiatives aimed at promoting women's health contribute to the growth of this market segment. The CAGR for Europe is estimated at 4.8%, indicating ongoing opportunities for stakeholders within this region.

Opportunities

The market for drugs targeting vulvovaginal candidiasis presents multiple opportunities for growth and expansion, particularly as healthcare providers increasingly recognize the importance of women's health. One significant opportunity lies in the development of new and innovative formulations that combine efficacy with improved patient experience. For example, the introduction of dual-action products that not only treat the infection but also address discomfort could resonate well with consumers. Additionally, education and awareness campaigns aimed at reducing the stigma surrounding vulvovaginal infections may encourage more women to seek treatment, thereby expanding the market. Collaborations between pharmaceutical companies and healthcare providers can also enhance the distribution and accessibility of effective treatments, driving further growth.

Moreover, the rise of telemedicine and e-pharmacy services presents a unique opportunity for drug manufacturers to reach a broader audience. By leveraging digital platforms, companies can provide consumers with easy access to a wide range of treatment options, along with valuable information about vulvovaginal candidiasis. This not only enhances convenience for patients but also fosters a greater understanding of the condition and available treatments. As more women embrace online healthcare solutions, drug manufacturers can capitalize on this trend by creating targeted marketing campaigns and user-friendly online shopping experiences. The continuous focus on product development, coupled with strategic partnerships in digital healthcare, may significantly propel the market forward.

Threats

Despite the promising growth of the drugs for vulvovaginal candidiasis market, there are several threats that could potentially hinder its expansion. One of the primary challenges is the increasing prevalence of antifungal resistance, which can render commonly used treatments ineffective. This resistance can lead to a growing number of patients experiencing recurrent infections, ultimately impacting their quality of life and increasing healthcare costs. The emergence of resistant strains underscores the urgent need for ongoing research and development of new antifungal agents, as well as the importance of proper education surrounding the use of existing medications. Failure to address this issue could result in decreased patient satisfaction and erosion of trust in established treatments.

Additionally, the market faces competition from alternative medicine and home remedies, which some consumers may prefer due to perceptions of safety and natural ingredients. With a growing trend toward holistic health, there is a risk that patients may opt for unproven treatments instead of seeking conventional medical solutions. This shift could negatively impact sales of established antifungal products. Furthermore, regulatory challenges and stringent approval processes for new medications can limit the speed of innovation in this sector. Stakeholders must remain vigilant and responsive to these threats to maintain a competitive edge in the evolving landscape of vulvovaginal candidiasis treatments.

Competitor Outlook

• Pfizer Inc.
• Merck & Co., Inc.
• GSK (GlaxoSmithKline)
• Johnson & Johnson
• Bayer AG
• Himalaya Drug Company
• Sanofi S.A.
• Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
• Novartis AG
• AbbVie Inc.
• Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies
• Amgen Inc.
• Alvogen, Inc.
• Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd.
• Apotex Inc.

The competitive landscape for drugs targeting vulvovaginal candidiasis is characterized by a mix of established pharmaceutical companies and emerging players focusing on innovative treatments. Major corporations such as Pfizer, Merck, and Johnson & Johnson dominate the market due to their extensive portfolios and strong research capabilities. These companies invest heavily in R&D to develop new antifungal agents and improve existing formulations, ensuring they remain at the forefront of the market. Their robust distribution networks and brand recognition also contribute to their competitive advantage, enabling them to reach a wide range of healthcare providers and consumers effectively.

In contrast, emerging companies and generics manufacturers are increasingly making their mark on the market by offering cost-effective alternatives to branded products. These players often leverage their agility to respond swiftly to changing consumer preferences and market demands. For example, companies like Alvogen and Dr. Reddy's Laboratories have focused on developing generic formulations of popular antifungal medications, thereby enhancing accessibility for patients. The competitive dynamics in the market are further complicated by the increasing interest in natural and holistic health solutions, thus prompting established players to explore partnerships and acquisitions to diversify their product ranges.

Among the key players, Merck stands out for its successful development of Fluconazole, which has become synonymous with effective treatment for vulvovaginal candidiasis. The company's commitment to innovation and patient education has positioned it as a leader in the market. Likewise, GSK is known for its focus on developing comprehensive treatment options that address both the infection and associated symptoms. The ability of these companies to adapt to market trends, such as the rise in online pharmacies and telehealth services, will be critical in maintaining their competitive edge and driving growth in the coming years.

• 1 Appendix

  • 1.1 List of Tables
  • 1.2 List of Figures

• 2 Introduction

  • 2.1 Market Definition
  • 2.2 Scope of the Report
  • 2.3 Study Assumptions
  • 2.4 Base Currency & Forecast Periods

• 3 Market Dynamics

  • 3.1 Market Growth Factors
  • 3.2 Economic & Global Events
  • 3.3 Innovation Trends
  • 3.4 Supply Chain Analysis

• 4 Consumer Behavior

  • 4.1 Market Trends
  • 4.2 Pricing Analysis
  • 4.3 Buyer Insights

• 5 Key Player Profiles

  • 5.1 Bayer AG
    • 5.1.1 Business Overview
    • 5.1.2 Products & Services
    • 5.1.3 Financials
    • 5.1.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.1.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.2 Amgen Inc.
    • 5.2.1 Business Overview
    • 5.2.2 Products & Services
    • 5.2.3 Financials
    • 5.2.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.2.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.3 AbbVie Inc.
    • 5.3.1 Business Overview
    • 5.3.2 Products & Services
    • 5.3.3 Financials
    • 5.3.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.3.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.4 Apotex Inc.
    • 5.4.1 Business Overview
    • 5.4.2 Products & Services
    • 5.4.3 Financials
    • 5.4.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.4.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.5 Novartis AG
    • 5.5.1 Business Overview
    • 5.5.2 Products & Services
    • 5.5.3 Financials
    • 5.5.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.5.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.6 Pfizer Inc.
    • 5.6.1 Business Overview
    • 5.6.2 Products & Services
    • 5.6.3 Financials
    • 5.6.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.6.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.7 Sanofi S.A.
    • 5.7.1 Business Overview
    • 5.7.2 Products & Services
    • 5.7.3 Financials
    • 5.7.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.7.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.8 Alvogen, Inc.
    • 5.8.1 Business Overview
    • 5.8.2 Products & Services
    • 5.8.3 Financials
    • 5.8.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.8.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.9 Johnson & Johnson
    • 5.9.1 Business Overview
    • 5.9.2 Products & Services
    • 5.9.3 Financials
    • 5.9.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.9.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.10 Merck & Co., Inc.
    • 5.10.1 Business Overview
    • 5.10.2 Products & Services
    • 5.10.3 Financials
    • 5.10.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.10.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.11 GSK (GlaxoSmithKline)
    • 5.11.1 Business Overview
    • 5.11.2 Products & Services
    • 5.11.3 Financials
    • 5.11.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.11.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.12 Himalaya Drug Company
    • 5.12.1 Business Overview
    • 5.12.2 Products & Services
    • 5.12.3 Financials
    • 5.12.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.12.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.13 Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd.
    • 5.13.1 Business Overview
    • 5.13.2 Products & Services
    • 5.13.3 Financials
    • 5.13.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.13.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.14 Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies
    • 5.14.1 Business Overview
    • 5.14.2 Products & Services
    • 5.14.3 Financials
    • 5.14.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.14.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.15 Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
    • 5.15.1 Business Overview
    • 5.15.2 Products & Services
    • 5.15.3 Financials
    • 5.15.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.15.5 SWOT Analysis

• 6 Market Segmentation

  • 6.1 Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market, By Application
    • 6.1.1 Hospital Pharmacies
    • 6.1.2 Retail Pharmacies
    • 6.1.3 Online Pharmacies
  • 6.2 Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market, By Product Type
    • 6.2.1 Prescription Drugs
    • 6.2.2 Over-the-Counter Drugs
    • 6.2.3 Antifungal Creams
    • 6.2.4 Antifungal Suppositories
    • 6.2.5 Oral Antifungal Medications
  • 6.3 Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market, By Active Ingredient
    • 6.3.1 Clotrimazole
    • 6.3.2 Miconazole
    • 6.3.3 Fluconazole
    • 6.3.4 Butoconazole
    • 6.3.5 Tioconazole
  • 6.4 Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market, By Distribution Channel
    • 6.4.1 Online Stores
    • 6.4.2 Supermarkets/Hypermarkets
    • 6.4.3 Specialty Stores
    • 6.4.4 Drug Stores

• 7 Competitive Analysis

  • 7.1 Key Player Comparison
  • 7.2 Market Share Analysis
  • 7.3 Investment Trends
  • 7.4 SWOT Analysis

• 8 Research Methodology

  • 8.1 Analysis Design
  • 8.2 Research Phases
  • 8.3 Study Timeline

• 9 Future Market Outlook

  • 9.1 Growth Forecast
  • 9.2 Market Evolution

• 10 Geographical Overview

  • 10.1 Europe - Market Analysis
    • 10.1.1 By Country
      • 10.1.1.1 UK
      • 10.1.1.2 France
      • 10.1.1.3 Germany
      • 10.1.1.4 Spain
      • 10.1.1.5 Italy
  • 10.2 Asia Pacific - Market Analysis
    • 10.2.1 By Country
      • 10.2.1.1 India
      • 10.2.1.2 China
      • 10.2.1.3 Japan
      • 10.2.1.4 South Korea
  • 10.3 Latin America - Market Analysis
    • 10.3.1 By Country
      • 10.3.1.1 Brazil
      • 10.3.1.2 Argentina
      • 10.3.1.3 Mexico
  • 10.4 North America - Market Analysis
    • 10.4.1 By Country
      • 10.4.1.1 USA
      • 10.4.1.2 Canada
  • 10.5 Middle East & Africa - Market Analysis
    • 10.5.1 By Country
      • 10.5.1.1 Middle East
      • 10.5.1.2 Africa
  • 10.6 Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales Market by Region

• 11 Global Economic Factors

  • 11.1 Inflation Impact
  • 11.2 Trade Policies

• 12 Technology & Innovation

  • 12.1 Emerging Technologies
  • 12.2 AI & Digital Trends
  • 12.3 Patent Research

• 13 Investment & Market Growth

  • 13.1 Funding Trends
  • 13.2 Future Market Projections

• 14 Market Overview & Key Insights

  • 14.1 Executive Summary
  • 14.2 Key Trends
  • 14.3 Market Challenges
  • 14.4 Regulatory Landscape

Segments Analyzed in the Report

The global Drugs for Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Sales market is categorized based on

By Product Type

• Prescription Drugs
• Over-the-Counter Drugs
• Antifungal Creams
• Antifungal Suppositories
• Oral Antifungal Medications

By Application

• Hospital Pharmacies
• Retail Pharmacies
• Online Pharmacies

By Distribution Channel

• Online Stores
• Supermarkets/Hypermarkets
• Specialty Stores
• Drug Stores

By Active Ingredient

• Clotrimazole
• Miconazole
• Fluconazole
• Butoconazole
• Tioconazole

By Region

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key Players

• Pfizer Inc.
• Merck & Co., Inc.
• GSK (GlaxoSmithKline)
• Johnson & Johnson
• Bayer AG
• Himalaya Drug Company
• Sanofi S.A.
• Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.
• Novartis AG
• AbbVie Inc.
• Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies
• Amgen Inc.
• Alvogen, Inc.
• Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd.
• Apotex Inc.