Automotive Crankshaft

Automotive Crankshaft Market Outlook

The global automotive crankshaft market is projected to reach approximately USD 5.8 billion by 2035, growing at a CAGR of about 6.2% from 2025 to 2035. The primary growth factor is the increasing demand for fuel-efficient vehicles coupled with stringent emission regulations that are pushing manufacturers to develop advanced crankshaft solutions. Furthermore, the rising trend in electric vehicle production is also influencing the market as manufacturers adapt their designs to accommodate changing powertrain technologies. As vehicle manufacturing continues to evolve, innovations in materials and design are expected to drive market growth significantly. Additionally, the expanding automotive sector in emerging economies is presenting new opportunities for market players.

Growth Factor of the Market

The automotive crankshaft market is experiencing a significant surge due to several interlinked factors. Firstly, the increasing global vehicle production, particularly in emerging markets such as India and China, is substantially driving demand for crankshafts. Moreover, advancements in manufacturing technologies, such as precision forging and casting processes, enhance the performance and durability of crankshafts, making them more appealing to manufacturers. Additionally, the shift towards electric and hybrid vehicles presents a new avenue for growth, as these vehicles often require specialized crankshaft designs to support their unique powertrains. The growing focus on lightweight materials to improve fuel efficiency is also pushing market evolution, encouraging manufacturers to develop alternative materials like carbon fiber and aluminum. Furthermore, the expansion of aftermarket services and the growing trend of vehicle customization will contribute to a steady demand for crankshafts over the coming years.

Key Highlights of the Market

• The global automotive crankshaft market is projected to witness robust growth, driven by increasing vehicle production.
• Innovations in materials, including lightweight and durable options, are reshaping the market landscape.
• Electric and hybrid vehicle production is generating new demand for specialized crankshaft designs.
• Aftermarket segments are expanding due to rising vehicle ownership and maintenance requirements.
• Geographical expansion in emerging markets offers significant growth opportunities for industry players.

By Product Type

Cast Iron Crankshaft:

Cast iron crankshafts are widely used due to their excellent wear resistance and affordable manufacturing costs. They are primarily found in passenger cars and light commercial vehicles, providing the necessary strength to withstand high torque loads. The longevity and durability of cast iron crankshafts make them a popular choice among automotive manufacturers. However, advancements in machining techniques and the demand for lighter components are leading to a gradual shift towards alternative materials. Despite this, cast iron remains a staple in the automotive industry due to its proven performance and reliability.

Forged Steel Crankshaft:

Forged steel crankshafts are renowned for their robustness and ability to handle high-stress conditions, making them ideal for high-performance vehicles. These crankshafts undergo a rigorous forging process that strengthens the material, providing enhanced fatigue resistance. As a result, forged steel crankshafts are commonly utilized in racing cars and heavy-duty applications, where performance and durability are critical. The increasing popularity of high-performance vehicles is anticipated to boost the demand for forged steel crankshafts significantly in the coming years, solidifying their position in the market.

Billet Crankshaft:

Billet crankshafts are crafted from solid metal blocks and are renowned for their superior strength and precision. They are often custom-made for high-performance applications, particularly in racing scenarios where every millisecond counts. These crankshafts are less prone to failure under extreme conditions and offer excellent balance, improving engine efficiency. With the growing trend of customizing vehicles for competitive racing, the demand for billet crankshafts is expected to rise significantly. Their ability to support high horsepower and torque outputs makes them a leading choice for performance enthusiasts.

Nitrided Crankshaft:

Nitrided crankshafts undergo a surface hardening process that enhances wear resistance and fatigue strength. This treatment involves diffusing nitrogen into the surface of the steel, creating a hard outer layer that improves durability. Nitrided crankshafts are increasingly being adopted in both commercial and passenger vehicles due to their ability to withstand extreme operating conditions. The growing emphasis on engine efficiency and longevity is driving the demand for nitrided crankshafts, as manufacturers seek to extend service intervals and reduce maintenance costs.

Carbon Fiber Crankshaft:

As a relatively new entrant in the automotive crankshaft market, carbon fiber crankshafts are gaining popularity due to their lightweight nature and high strength-to-weight ratio. They enable significant weight savings in engine design, contributing to improved vehicle performance and fuel efficiency. While still in the early adoption phase, advancements in carbon fiber manufacturing techniques are set to increase their availability. High-end performance vehicles and motorsports are expected to lead the adoption of carbon fiber crankshafts, paving the way for future innovations in this segment.

By Application

Passenger Cars:

Passenger cars are the largest segment in the automotive crankshaft market, driven by the high volume of vehicle production globally. With the continuous developments in engine technology aimed at improving efficiency and performance, the demand for reliable crankshaft components remains robust. As automobile manufacturers focus on reducing emissions and enhancing fuel efficiency, innovations in crankshaft design and manufacturing processes are increasingly being implemented. This segment is likely to see sustained growth as consumer preferences shift towards more efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles.

Commercial Vehicles:

The commercial vehicle segment represents a significant portion of the automotive crankshaft market, driven by the increasing demand for freight transport and logistics. With the rise in e-commerce and global trade, the need for trucks and other commercial vehicles is expected to grow, consequently driving the demand for robust crankshaft solutions. Manufacturers are focusing on developing crankshafts that can endure heavy loads and extreme conditions, which are critical for commercial applications. The growth of infrastructure projects and urbanization is further expected to bolster the commercial vehicle market, positively impacting the crankshaft market as well.

Racing Cars:

The racing car segment is characterized by a niche but rapidly growing market for high-performance crankshafts. Crankshafts used in racing applications require precision engineering and exceptional durability to withstand the extreme conditions experienced in motorsport. The demand for racing cars, whether in professional leagues or amateur circuits, is increasing, fueling the need for specialized crankshaft designs that enhance performance metrics. Innovations in materials and manufacturing processes allow manufacturers to produce crankshafts tailored for performance, driving the growth of this segment.

Off-road Vehicles:

Off-road vehicles, known for their ruggedness and ability to tackle challenging terrains, also contribute significantly to the automotive crankshaft market. These vehicles require durable and reliable crankshaft solutions designed to withstand harsher conditions and heavy-duty applications. The growing popularity of off-roading as a recreational activity is driving demand in this segment. As manufacturers innovate to enhance the performance of off-road vehicles, the demand for specialized crankshafts that can deliver power and torque while maintaining reliability continues to grow.

Recreational Vehicles:

The recreational vehicle segment encompasses a wide range of vehicles, including motorhomes, trailers, and all-terrain vehicles. The increasing trend of outdoor recreational activities is driving the demand for these vehicles, which in turn boosts the need for high-quality crankshaft solutions. Manufacturers are focusing on developing lightweight yet durable crankshafts that can sustain extended driving without compromising performance. This segment's growth is expected to continue as consumer lifestyles gravitate towards adventure and leisure, creating opportunities for innovation in crankshaft design.

By Distribution Channel

OEMs:

Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) play a crucial role in the automotive crankshaft market as they account for a significant share of the market through direct vehicle production. OEMs require high volumes of crankshafts that meet strict quality and performance standards, which drives innovation and collaboration with crankshaft manufacturers. The growth in vehicle production worldwide directly correlates with the demand for crankshafts by OEMs, making them a vital segment in the market. As the automotive industry increasingly focuses on electric and hybrid vehicles, OEMs are adapting their supply chains to cater to the changing landscape, further fueling the demand for specialized crankshaft solutions.

Aftermarket:

The aftermarket segment is experiencing significant growth, driven by the increase in vehicle ownership and the need for maintenance and replacement parts. As vehicles age, the likelihood of component failure, including crankshafts, increases, leading to greater demand for aftermarket solutions. The expansion of e-commerce platforms and independent repair shops is facilitating easier access to quality crankshafts for vehicle owners. Additionally, the rising trend of vehicle customization is contributing to the aftermarket segment, as consumers seek to enhance their vehicle's performance and aesthetics through upgraded crankshaft options.

Online Retailers:

Online retailers have transformed the way consumers access automotive parts, including crankshafts. The convenience of online shopping, coupled with competitive pricing and extensive product availability, has made this distribution channel increasingly popular among consumers and businesses alike. Online platforms allow consumers to compare products, read reviews, and make informed purchasing decisions, which is essential for specialized components like crankshafts. The growing trend of digitalization in the automotive industry is expected to further amplify the role of online retailers, providing a more accessible marketplace for crankshaft solutions.

Dealerships:

Automotive dealerships remain an essential distribution channel for crankshafts, providing a direct link between manufacturers and consumers. Dealerships often offer OEM parts, ensuring that consumers receive high-quality components that meet original specifications. With the increasing complexity of automotive systems, dealerships are becoming crucial for consumers seeking expert advice on repairs and replacements. The relationship between dealerships and manufacturers is vital for maintaining inventory levels and ensuring timely availability of crankshafts, contributing to the overall efficiency of the supply chain in the automotive sector.

Independent Repair Shops:

Independent repair shops are growing in importance within the automotive crankshaft market as they cater to a diverse customer base looking for cost-effective repair solutions. These shops often provide personalized service and can offer competitive pricing compared to dealerships, making them appealing to budget-conscious consumers. The increasing number of vehicles on the road and the demand for routine maintenance and repairs are driving the need for quality crankshaft solutions in independent shops. As these establishments expand their service offerings, they are expected to play a significant role in the aftermarket landscape for automotive components.

By Material Type

Steel:

Steel is one of the most commonly used materials for manufacturing crankshafts due to its excellent mechanical properties, including strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance. Steel crankshafts are particularly favored for their ability to withstand high stress, making them suitable for a variety of applications, including passenger cars and commercial vehicles. The availability of different grades of steel allows manufacturers to tailor crankshafts to specific performance requirements. However, as the automotive industry focuses on reducing weight and enhancing fuel efficiency, the demand for alternative materials is gradually increasing.

Iron:

Iron, particularly cast iron, has been a traditional choice for crankshaft manufacturing due to its affordability and good wear resistance. Cast iron crankshafts are widely utilized in standard passenger vehicles, providing reliability and durability. Despite the emergence of advanced materials, iron remains relevant in the market due to its proven performance history. However, the focus on lightweight solutions is pushing manufacturers to explore new materials, leading to innovation in crankshaft design and engineering.

Aluminum:

Aluminum crankshafts are gaining traction in the automotive sector due to their lightweight nature, which significantly contributes to improved fuel efficiency and performance. The demand for lighter vehicles is driving manufacturers to adopt aluminum in crankshaft production, particularly for applications in electric and hybrid vehicles. Although aluminum crankshafts can be more expensive than their iron or steel counterparts, the advantages in performance and efficiency often justify the cost. As technology advances, the adoption of aluminum crankshafts is expected to increase, particularly in high-end and performance vehicles.

Carbon Fiber:

Carbon fiber is emerging as a transformative material in the automotive crankshaft market, primarily due to its remarkable strength-to-weight ratio. Crankshafts made from carbon fiber are significantly lighter than traditional materials while offering exceptional durability and resistance to fatigue. This makes them particularly attractive for high-performance applications, including motorsports and luxury vehicles. Although the production of carbon fiber components is currently more expensive, ongoing advancements in manufacturing techniques are expected to reduce costs and increase their adoption across various vehicle segments, paving the way for a new era of crankshaft design.

Titanium:

Titanium crankshafts are known for their exceptional strength and low density, making them ideal for high-performance applications where weight savings are crucial. The use of titanium in crankshafts can lead to improved engine responsiveness and efficiency, especially in racing and luxury vehicles. However, the high cost of titanium compared to traditional materials can limit its widespread use. Nevertheless, as manufacturers seek innovative solutions to enhance performance and reduce emissions, the demand for titanium crankshafts is anticipated to grow, especially in specialized applications where performance is paramount.

By Region

North America is currently the largest market for automotive crankshafts, accounting for a significant share of the global market driven by high vehicle production rates and strong consumer demand for advanced automotive technologies. The region is home to several major automotive manufacturers who continuously innovate their vehicle offerings to comply with stringent emission standards, thereby creating a steady demand for high-quality crankshaft solutions. The market in North America is projected to grow at a CAGR of around 5.5% during the forecast period, as the shift towards electric vehicles and enhanced fuel efficiency drives innovation in crankshaft design.

In Europe, the automotive crankshaft market is expected to showcase substantial growth, fueled by the presence of key automobile manufacturers and a growing emphasis on reducing carbon emissions. The European automotive industry is highly competitive and is rapidly adopting new technologies, resulting in increased demand for advanced crankshaft materials and designs. The market in Europe is projected to grow at a CAGR of approximately 6.0%, as manufacturers focus on lightweight components to improve vehicle efficiency. Meanwhile, the Asia Pacific region is experiencing rapid growth in vehicle production, driven by rising disposable incomes and increasing urbanization, making it a promising market for automotive crankshafts.

Opportunities

The automotive crankshaft market is poised for significant opportunities as manufacturers adapt to evolving automotive technologies, particularly with the rise of electric and hybrid vehicles. This transition presents a unique opportunity for specialized crankshaft designs that cater to the specific requirements of these new powertrain systems. As vehicle manufacturers seek to enhance performance while adhering to stricter emission regulations, there is a growing need for innovative crankshaft solutions that improve engine efficiency and reduce weight. Furthermore, the development of advanced manufacturing techniques, such as additive manufacturing, offers the potential to create complex crankshaft geometries that were previously impossible, paving the way for new product developments and market entrants.

In addition, the rise in vehicle customization trends presents a lucrative opportunity for the automotive crankshaft market. Consumers are increasingly seeking personalized features in their vehicles, creating demand for aftermarket crankshaft solutions that enhance performance or provide unique aesthetics. Manufacturers can capitalize on this trend by offering a range of crankshafts tailored to specific consumer preferences and performance needs. Moreover, as awareness of sustainability grows, there is a rising demand for environmentally friendly materials and manufacturing processes, positioning companies that innovate in sustainability as market leaders in the automotive crankshaft sector.

Threats

One significant threat to the automotive crankshaft market is the volatility in raw material prices, which can impact manufacturing costs and profit margins. Fluctuations in the cost of essential materials such as steel, aluminum, and titanium can create uncertainty for manufacturers, potentially leading to increased prices for end consumers and reduced competitiveness in the market. Additionally, the increasing adoption of electric vehicles may pose a threat to traditional crankshaft applications, as these vehicles often do not require conventional crankshaft designs. This shift in technology could lead to a reduction in demand for crankshafts in the long term, challenging manufacturers to innovate and adapt their product offerings to align with changing market dynamics.

Another threat lies in the competitive landscape of the automotive industry, where numerous established players and new entrants are vying for market share. The rapid pace of technological advancement means that companies must continually innovate to keep up with market demands. Failure to adapt to new trends or invest in research and development can result in loss of market position and profitability. Furthermore, the ongoing global supply chain disruptions, exacerbated by events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have highlighted vulnerabilities in sourcing and logistics, which can impact the timely delivery of crankshafts and ultimately affect customer satisfaction and brand loyalty.

Competitor Outlook

• Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.
• JTEKT Corporation
• Federal-Mogul LLC
• Thyssenkrupp AG
• Schaeffler AG
• Ricardo PLC
• Metal Technologies Inc.
• Crankshaft Manufacturing Co.
• Alstom S.A.
• Pioneer Automotive Technologies
• Maruti Suzuki India Limited
• ICL Group
• Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
• Volkswagen AG
• Ford Motor Company

The automotive crankshaft market is characterized by intense competition among established players and new innovators. Major companies are focusing on strategic partnerships, mergers, and acquisitions to enhance their technological capabilities and broaden their product portfolios. As consumer preferences shift towards performance and sustainability, companies are investing significantly in research and development to create advanced crankshaft solutions that meet these demands. With the rise of electric vehicles, traditional manufacturers are also exploring partnerships with tech firms and startups to integrate innovative technologies into their product offerings, thereby enhancing their competitive edge in the market.

Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. is a key player in the automotive crankshaft market, focusing on the production of high-quality components for a diverse range of vehicles. The company has established a strong reputation for its commitment to quality and innovation, investing in advanced manufacturing technologies to enhance its product offerings. Similarly, JTEKT Corporation is known for its expertise in crankshaft manufacturing, catering to both OEMs and aftermarket segments. The company's commitment to sustainability and technological advancement positions it as a strong competitor in the market as the demand for environmentally friendly solutions grows.

Companies like Federal-Mogul LLC and Thyssenkrupp AG are also major contributors to the market, focusing on producing durable and high-performance crankshafts. Federal-Mogul, with its extensive experience in the automotive sector, continues to innovate in materials and manufacturing processes, while Thyssenkrupp is leveraging its engineering expertise to develop advanced crankshaft solutions. In addition, Ricardo PLC specializes in high-performance automotive products and is recognized for its focus on engineering excellence. As competition intensifies, these companies are continuously adapting their strategies to capitalize on emerging opportunities while addressing challenges in the rapidly evolving automotive market.

• 1 Appendix

  • 1.1 List of Tables
  • 1.2 List of Figures

• 2 Introduction

  • 2.1 Market Definition
  • 2.2 Scope of the Report
  • 2.3 Study Assumptions
  • 2.4 Base Currency & Forecast Periods

• 3 Market Dynamics

  • 3.1 Market Growth Factors
  • 3.2 Economic & Global Events
  • 3.3 Innovation Trends
  • 3.4 Supply Chain Analysis

• 4 Consumer Behavior

  • 4.1 Market Trends
  • 4.2 Pricing Analysis
  • 4.3 Buyer Insights

• 5 Key Player Profiles

  • 5.1 ICL Group
    • 5.1.1 Business Overview
    • 5.1.2 Products & Services
    • 5.1.3 Financials
    • 5.1.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.1.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.2 Alstom S.A.
    • 5.2.1 Business Overview
    • 5.2.2 Products & Services
    • 5.2.3 Financials
    • 5.2.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.2.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.3 Ricardo PLC
    • 5.3.1 Business Overview
    • 5.3.2 Products & Services
    • 5.3.3 Financials
    • 5.3.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.3.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.4 Schaeffler AG
    • 5.4.1 Business Overview
    • 5.4.2 Products & Services
    • 5.4.3 Financials
    • 5.4.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.4.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.5 Volkswagen AG
    • 5.5.1 Business Overview
    • 5.5.2 Products & Services
    • 5.5.3 Financials
    • 5.5.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.5.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.6 Thyssenkrupp AG
    • 5.6.1 Business Overview
    • 5.6.2 Products & Services
    • 5.6.3 Financials
    • 5.6.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.6.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.7 Federal-Mogul LLC
    • 5.7.1 Business Overview
    • 5.7.2 Products & Services
    • 5.7.3 Financials
    • 5.7.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.7.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.8 JTEKT Corporation
    • 5.8.1 Business Overview
    • 5.8.2 Products & Services
    • 5.8.3 Financials
    • 5.8.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.8.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.9 Ford Motor Company
    • 5.9.1 Business Overview
    • 5.9.2 Products & Services
    • 5.9.3 Financials
    • 5.9.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.9.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.10 Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
    • 5.10.1 Business Overview
    • 5.10.2 Products & Services
    • 5.10.3 Financials
    • 5.10.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.10.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.11 Metal Technologies Inc.
    • 5.11.1 Business Overview
    • 5.11.2 Products & Services
    • 5.11.3 Financials
    • 5.11.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.11.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.12 Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.
    • 5.12.1 Business Overview
    • 5.12.2 Products & Services
    • 5.12.3 Financials
    • 5.12.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.12.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.13 Maruti Suzuki India Limited
    • 5.13.1 Business Overview
    • 5.13.2 Products & Services
    • 5.13.3 Financials
    • 5.13.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.13.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.14 Crankshaft Manufacturing Co.
    • 5.14.1 Business Overview
    • 5.14.2 Products & Services
    • 5.14.3 Financials
    • 5.14.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.14.5 SWOT Analysis
  • 5.15 Pioneer Automotive Technologies
    • 5.15.1 Business Overview
    • 5.15.2 Products & Services
    • 5.15.3 Financials
    • 5.15.4 Recent Developments
    • 5.15.5 SWOT Analysis

• 6 Market Segmentation

  • 6.1 Automotive Crankshaft Market, By Application
    • 6.1.1 Passenger Cars
    • 6.1.2 Commercial Vehicles
    • 6.1.3 Racing Cars
    • 6.1.4 Off-road Vehicles
    • 6.1.5 Recreational Vehicles
  • 6.2 Automotive Crankshaft Market, By Product Type
    • 6.2.1 Cast Iron Crankshaft
    • 6.2.2 Forged Steel Crankshaft
    • 6.2.3 Billet Crankshaft
    • 6.2.4 Nitrided Crankshaft
    • 6.2.5 Carbon Fiber Crankshaft
  • 6.3 Automotive Crankshaft Market, By Material Type
    • 6.3.1 Steel
    • 6.3.2 Iron
    • 6.3.3 Aluminum
    • 6.3.4 Carbon Fiber
    • 6.3.5 Titanium

• 7 Competitive Analysis

  • 7.1 Key Player Comparison
  • 7.2 Market Share Analysis
  • 7.3 Investment Trends
  • 7.4 SWOT Analysis

• 8 Research Methodology

  • 8.1 Analysis Design
  • 8.2 Research Phases
  • 8.3 Study Timeline

• 9 Future Market Outlook

  • 9.1 Growth Forecast
  • 9.2 Market Evolution

• 10 Geographical Overview

  • 10.1 Europe - Market Analysis
    • 10.1.1 By Country
      • 10.1.1.1 UK
      • 10.1.1.2 France
      • 10.1.1.3 Germany
      • 10.1.1.4 Spain
      • 10.1.1.5 Italy
  • 10.2 Asia Pacific - Market Analysis
    • 10.2.1 By Country
      • 10.2.1.1 India
      • 10.2.1.2 China
      • 10.2.1.3 Japan
      • 10.2.1.4 South Korea
  • 10.3 Latin America - Market Analysis
    • 10.3.1 By Country
      • 10.3.1.1 Brazil
      • 10.3.1.2 Argentina
      • 10.3.1.3 Mexico
  • 10.4 North America - Market Analysis
    • 10.4.1 By Country
      • 10.4.1.1 USA
      • 10.4.1.2 Canada
  • 10.5 Automotive Crankshaft Market by Region
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa - Market Analysis
    • 10.6.1 By Country
      • 10.6.1.1 Middle East
      • 10.6.1.2 Africa

• 11 Global Economic Factors

  • 11.1 Inflation Impact
  • 11.2 Trade Policies

• 12 Technology & Innovation

  • 12.1 Emerging Technologies
  • 12.2 AI & Digital Trends
  • 12.3 Patent Research

• 13 Investment & Market Growth

  • 13.1 Funding Trends
  • 13.2 Future Market Projections

• 14 Market Overview & Key Insights

  • 14.1 Executive Summary
  • 14.2 Key Trends
  • 14.3 Market Challenges
  • 14.4 Regulatory Landscape

Segments Analyzed in the Report

The global Automotive Crankshaft market is categorized based on

By Product Type

• Cast Iron Crankshaft
• Forged Steel Crankshaft
• Billet Crankshaft
• Nitrided Crankshaft
• Carbon Fiber Crankshaft

By Application

• Passenger Cars
• Commercial Vehicles
• Racing Cars
• Off-road Vehicles
• Recreational Vehicles

By Material Type

• Steel
• Iron
• Aluminum
• Carbon Fiber
• Titanium

By Region

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key Players

• Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.
• JTEKT Corporation
• Federal-Mogul LLC
• Thyssenkrupp AG
• Schaeffler AG
• Ricardo PLC
• Metal Technologies Inc.
• Crankshaft Manufacturing Co.
• Alstom S.A.
• Pioneer Automotive Technologies
• Maruti Suzuki India Limited
• ICL Group
• Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
• Volkswagen AG
• Ford Motor Company